A business incurs operating costs by paying

As the nation was industrializing, Congress used tariffs to

The Constitution bans states from imposing tariffs, helping goods flow freely around the country.

Laissez-faire advocates support high tariffs.

Prices of many products increased as the United States became an industrial nation.

Small manufacturing companies that had been typical before the Civil War usually had very low operating costs, but very high fixed costs.

Business pools would break apart when one member cut prices to steal market share from another.

Issuing stock to stockholders allows a corporation to raise large amounts of money for big projects while spreading out the financial risk.

Andrew Carnegie founded a steel company in Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, in 1875.

Large corporations with high operating costs found it difficult to compete against small businesses, and many were forced out of business.

Department stores began to open up in the 1800s, and changed the idea of shopping by bringing together a huge array of different products in a large, elegant building.

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